THE RECOGNITION OF ABORIGINAL CUSTOMARY LAWS

[Recognition of Aboriginal customary laws (ALRC31), tabled in federal parliament on 12 June 1986.]

• VOLUME I - Contents
• PART I - INTRODUCTION: THE REFERENCE AND ITS BACKGROUND
• PART II - THE RECOGNITION OF ABORIGINAL CUSTOMARY LAWS: GENERAL PRINCIPLES
• PART III - ABORIGINAL CUSTOMARY LAWS · MARRIAGE, CHILDREN AND FAMILY PROPERTY
• PART IV - ABORIGINAL CUSTOMARY LAWS: THE CRIMINAL LAW AND SENTENCING
• PART V - PROBLEMS OF EVIDENCE AND PROCEDURE
• Summary

• VOLUME 2 - Contents
• PART VI - LOCAL JUSTICE MECHANISMS FOR ABORIGINAL COMMUNITIES
• PART VII - THE RECOGNITION OF TRADITIONAL HUNTING, FISHING AND GATHERING RIGHTS
• PART VIII: THE COMMISSION'S RECOMMENDATIONS AND THEIR IMPLEMENTATION
• APPENDIX A - DRAFT LEGISLATION
• APPENDIX B COURSE OF THE INQUIRY
• TABLE OF CASES
• TABLE OF LEGISLATION
• TABLE OF TREATIES
• BIBLIOGRAPHY

---

Volume 1 Contents

• Publication Details
• TERMS OF REFERENCE
• PARTICIPANTS
• PART I - INTRODUCTION: THE REFERENCE AND ITS BACKGROUND
• 1.The Reference and its Background
• 1. A Reconsideration of Basic Questions.
• 2. Developments Towards Recognition.
• 3.Pressures for Change.
• 4.Catalysts for the Reference.
• 5.The Reference and its Scope.
• 6.Matters to be taken into Account.
• 7.The Reference and Changing Patterns of Aboriginal/Non-Aboriginal Relations.
• 2. The Commission's Work on the Reference
• Special Needs for Consultation and Discussion
• 8.The Scope of the Problem.
• The Commission's Program
• 9. Field Trips.
• 10. Discussion Paper 17 (1980).
• 11. Public Hearings.
• 12. Later Research and Discussion Papers.
• 13. Seminars.
• 14. Honorary Consultants.
• The Views of Aboriginal People
• 16. The Need for Aboriginal Involvement.
• 17.The Extent of Aboriginal Involvement.
• 18. Discussions with Aboriginal Women.
• 19. The Adequacy of Consultation.
• 20. The Commission's Assessment.
• 3. Aboriginal Societies: The Experience of
• 21. The Relevance of History.
• Changing Policies Towards Aboriginal People
• 22. The Initial Impact.
• 23. Early Years of British Settlement.
• 24. Colonial Attitudes Harden.
• 25. Protection.
• 26. Assimilation.
• 27. Integration.
• 28. Self-Management or Self-Determination.
• Impacts of Settlement on Aboriginal People
• 29. The Continuing Impact of Settlement.
• 30. Impact on Traditional Authority.
• 31. Measuring Present Disadvantage.
• 32. The Variety of Aboriginal Experiences.
• 33. A Demographic Survey.
• 34. Traditionally Oriented Aborigines.
• 35. Urban Aborigines 75
• 36. Fringe Dwellers or Town Campers.
• 4. Aboriginal Customary Laws and Anglo-Australian
• Aboriginal Societies and Their Laws
• 37. The Character of Aboriginal Customary Laws.
• 38. The Survival of Aboriginal Customary Laws.
• Australian Law as Applied to Aborigines
• 39. The Application of British Law to Aborigines.
• 40. Jack Congo Murrell's Case.
• 41.The Application of the Law in Practice: Colonial Policy.
• 42. The Exercise of the Prerogative of Mercy.
• 43.Early Enquiries into Aboriginal Policy and the Law.
• 44. Grey's Report (1840).
• 45. Continuing Judicial Doubts and Reservations.
• 46. The Problem of Aboriginal Evidence.
• 47. Non-Recognition in other Contexts:
• 48. Phases of the Non-Recognition Policy.
• Protest and Reform in the 1920s and 1930s
• 49. The Need for Change.
• 50. Attention Given to Aboriginal Customary Laws.
• 51. Tuckiar's Case.
• Administrative Responses
• 52. Northern Territory Responses.
• 53. Western Australian Responses.
• 54. The Conference of Protectors. 1937.
• 55. Queensland Aboriginal Courts.
• 56. Outcome of the 1930s Debates.
• 57. From the 1940s to the 1970s.
• Conclusion
• 58. A Denial of Right.
• 59. Recognition Now: Common Law or Legislation ?
• 5. Recognition of Aboriginal Customary Laws at
• 60. An Issue of Continuing Relevance.
• Recognition of Custom at Common Law
• 61.The Recognition of Native Customs under the Common Law.
• 62. The Common Law and Custom.
• 63. Communal Native Title.
• The Settled Colony Debate
• 64. The Distinction Between Settled and Conquered Colonies.
• 66. The Settled/Conquered Colony Debate.
• 67. Legal and Moral Issues.
• 68. The Issue for the Commission.
• 6. The Recognition of Aboriginal Customary Laws
• 69. Introduction.
• Recognition through the Courts
• 70. Judicial Responses.
• 71. Sentencing Discretions.
• 72. The Substantive Criminal Law.
• 73. Compensable Injury.
• 74. Traditional Marriage: A Northern Territory Decision.
• 75. Interrogation Rules.
• Recognition through Legislation
• 76. Legislative Responses.
• 77. The Grant of Land Rights.
• 78. Sites and Sacred Sites.
• 79. Hunting and Fishing Rights.
• 80. Aboriginal Traditional Marriages.
• 81. Aboriginal Child Care Practices.
• 82. Traditional Distribution on Death.
• 83. Aboriginal Courts.
• Conclusion
• 84. Lessons from Experience.
• 85. The Need for a Comprehensive Review.

• PART II - THE RECOGNITION OF ABORIGINAL CUSTOMARY LAWS: GENERAL PRINCIPLES
• 7. The Scope of the Report
• Questions of Interpretation and Approach
• 86. The Terms of Reference: Narrow or Broad?
• 87. Purpose of this Part.
• The Definition of 'Aborigine'
• 88. Who is an Aborigine?
• 89. Early Attempts at Definition.
• 90.The Constitutional Question.
• 91. The Impact of a Broader Definition.
• 92. The High Court Adopts the Broader View.
• 93. State Definitions.
• 94. Practice under the Aboriginal Land Rights (Northern Territory) Act 1976 (Cth).
• 95. The Commission's View.
• The Position of Torres Strait Islanders and South Sea Islanders
• 96. Torres Strait Islanders.
• 97. South Sea Islanders.
• The Definition of Aboriginal Customary Laws
• 98. A Composite Phrase.
• 99. Characteristics of Aboriginal Customary Laws.
• 100. Attempts at Definition.
• 101. The Need for a Broad Approach.
• 8. Aboriginal Customary Laws:
• Introduction
• 102. Assessing the Different Arguments about Recognition.
• Arguments for the Recognition of Aboriginal Customary Laws
• 103. Aboriginal Customary Laws as a Continuing Aspect of Traditional Culture and Belief
• 104. Adverse Consequences of Non-Recognition.
• 105. Impact of Non-Recognition on Traditional Authority.
• 106. Aboriginal Support for Recognition.
• 107. Australian Government Policy Towards Aborigines.
• 108.The Maintenance of Order.
• 109. Compensation for Aborigines.
• 110. The Injustice of Non-Recognition.
• 111. The Need for Consistency and Clarification of the Law.
• 112. Other Arguments.
• Arguments against the Recognition of Aboriginal Customary Laws
• 113. An Overview.
• 114. Unacceptable Rules and Punishments.
• 115. Secret Aspects of Aboriginal Customary Laws.
• 116. Loss of Control over the Law.
• 117. The Position of Aboriginal Women.
• 118. Divisiveness and the 'One Law'.
• 119. Synthetic Customary Law.
• 120. Opposing views.
• 121. The Commission's View.
• 122. The Decline of Customary Law.
• 123. Difficulties resulting from Changes and Disruptions in Aboriginal Communities.
• 124. The Geographical Restriction of Customary Laws.
• 126. Problems of Definition.
• Summary of Arguments
• 127. General Conclusion
• 9. Discrimination, Equality and Pluralism
• 128. Influential Arguments.
• 129. Purpose of this Chapter.
• Criteria for Equality: A Comparative Perspective
• 130. Distinctions and Discriminations.
• 131. Special Laws or Treaties with Indigenous Peoples.
• The Position under the United States Constitution
• 132. Equal Protection under the Constitution.
• 133. The Test for 'Affirmative Action'.
• 134. The Special Position of American Indians.
• 135. Equal Protection and American Indians.
• 136. United States v Antelope.
• 137. A Test-case: The Indian Child Welfare Act 1978 (USA).
• The Position in Canada
• 138. The Canadian Bill of Rights 1960.
• 139. Initial Uncertainties.
• 141. The Emergence of a Test for Equality.
• 142. The 'Valid Federal Objective' Test.
• 143. The Canadian Constitution Act 1982.
• The Position in Other Comparable Jurisdictions
• 145. A Pacific Island Decision.
• 146. Decisions in Other Jurisdictions.
• The Position in International Law
• 147. The Concept of Discrimination in General International Law.
• 149. Discrimination in the Racial Discrimination Convention.
• 150. Discrimination and Special Measures: Two Views of the Convention.
• The Position in Australia
• 151. The Effect of Section 51(26) of the Constitution. In Koowarta v Bjelke-Petersen,
• 152. The Racial Discrimination Act 1975 (Cth).
• 153. The Racial Discrimination Act 1975 and the High Court: Gerhardy v Brown.
• 154. The 'Reasonable Classification' Doctrine.
• 155. The Pitjantjatjara Land Rights Act as a Special Measure.
• 156. The Duration of Special Measures.
• 157. The Present Australian Law.
• The Commission's Approach
• 158. The Justification of Special Laws.
• 159. Assessment of Proposals .for Recognition.
• 160. Discrimination Against Traditional Aborigines.
• 161. Discrimination against Other Aborigines.
• 162. Discrimination against non-Aborigines.
• 163. Discrimination against Cultural Traditions and Practices of Immigrant Groups.
• 164. Distinctions between Aboriginal and Immigrant Customs.
• 165. The Commission's Conclusion.
• Pluralism, Public Opinion and the Recognition of Aboriginal Customary Laws
• 166. Other Related Objections to Recognition
• 167. Legal Pluralism
• 168. Legal Pluralism and the Criminal Law.
• 169. Divisiveness and Public Opinion.
• 10. Ensuring Basic Human Rights
• Introduction
• 170. The Relevance of International Human Rights.
• Human Rights and Indigenous Minorities: Collective Guarantees
• 171. Fundamental Guarantees for Minorities.
• 172. International Law and Minority Rights.
• 173. ILO Convention 107.
• 174. Criticism of ILO Convention 107.
• 175. The Civil and Political Rights Covenant.
• 176. The Lovelace Case.23
• 177. The Scope of Article 27.
• 178. Conclusion: A Duty of Recognition?
• The Recognition of Aboriginal Customary Laws and Human Rights Standards
• 179. Relevant Human Rights Instruments.
• 180. International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights 1966.
• 181. International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights 1966.
• 182. Other International Instruments.
• 183. General Human Rights Standards and Indigenous Minority Traditions.
• 184. Article 27 and Specific Human Rights.
• 185. The Problem of Relativity of Standards.
• 186. Practice under the European Convention on Human Rights.
• 187. The Tyrer Case.
• 188. The Dudgeon Case.
• 189. The Campbell and Cosans Case.
• 190. Conclusion.
• 191. The Position under the Universal Human Rights Treaties.
• 192. General Conclusions.
• 193. Ensuring Basic Human Rights:
• 11. The Commission's Approach
• A Case for Recognition
• 194. The Need to Recognise Aboriginal Customary Laws.
• Framework of the Report
• 195. The Continued Application of the General Law.
• 196. Avoidance of Separate Formal Systems.
• 197. Federal/State Constraints.
• The Approach to Recognition
• 198. The Commission's Approach.
• 199. Recognition as Acknowledgement.
• 200. Recognition as Incorporation.
• 201. General Incorporation of Customary Laws.
• 202. Incorporation and Autonomy.
• 203. Recognition as Exclusion.
• 204. Recognition as Translation.
• 205. 'Translating' Aboriginal Customary Laws.
• 206. Recognition as Adjustment or Accommodation.
• 207. Accommodation by Statute or Otherwise?
• 208. Preferred Forms of Recognition.
• Conclusion
• 209. Adjusting the General Law to Accommodate Aboriginal Customary Laws.
• Scope of the Report
• 210. Issues of Criminal and Civil Law.
• 211. Delimiting the Scope of Inquiry.
• 212. Aboriginal Land Rights and Claims.
• 213. Protection of Aboriginal Art and Heritage.84
• Consequential Matters
• 214. Aboriginal/Police Relations.
• 215. Education.
• 216. Resources.
• A Provisional Report
• 217. Oversight, Implementation and the Future.
• 218. The Need for Evaluation and Review.
• 219. A 'Sunset Clause'?
• 220. Structure of the Report.
• Summary
• 221. Conclusions in Parts I & II.

• PART III - ABORIGINAL CUSTOMARY LAWS · MARRIAGE, CHILDREN AND FAMILY PROPERTY
• 12. Aboriginal Marriages and Family
• Introduction
• 222. The Terms of Reference.
• Marriage in Traditional Aboriginal Societies
• 223. Traditional Marriage Arrangements.3
• 224. Arranging Marriages.
• 225. Patterns of Marriage and Remarriage.
• Marriages in Aboriginal Societies Today
• 226. Pressures for Change.
• 227. Promised Marriages Today.
• 228. Traditional Marriages Today.
• 229. Flexibility of Traditional Marriage Rules.
• Aboriginal Family and Child Care Arrangements
• 230. Bringing up Children in Aboriginal Communities.
• 231. Arrangements for 'Substitute Care' of Children.
• Conclusion
• 232. Matters for Consideration.
• 13. The Recognition of Traditional Marriages:
• Introduction
• 233. The Present Position.
• 234. Anglo-Australian Concept of Marriage.
• 235. Changing Ideas and Rules.
• 236. Aboriginal Ideas of Marriage.
• Existing Recognition of Traditional Marriages under Australian Law
• 237. The Position at Common Law.
• 238. Traditional Marriages as 'De Facto Relationships'
• 239. Recognition of Traditional Marriage under Australian Legislation.
• 240. Recognition of Traditional Marriages in Overseas Countries.
• Alternative Forms of Recognition of Aboriginal Traditional Marriages
• 241. Four Different Approaches.
• Recognition of Traditional Marriages as De Facto Relationships
• 242. The Present Law.
• 243. Advantages of this Form of Recognition.
• 244. Disadvantages of Recognition as De Facto Relationships.
• 245. The Need for Special Recognition.
• Enforcement of Traditional Marriage Rules
• 246. Enforcement by the General Law of Aboriginal Customary Marriage Rules.
• 247. Aboriginal Requests.
• 248. Conflicts over Marriages.
• 249. Basic Standards.
• 250. Aboriginal Perspectives.
• 251. The Commission's Approach.
• 252. Problems of Policing.
• 253. Support for Aboriginal Communities.
• Recognition of Traditional Marriage
• 254. Which Approach ?
• 255. Categorical Recognition.
• 256. Functional Recognition.
• 257. The Commission's Conclusion.
• Difficulties of Recognition
• 258. Polygynous Aboriginal Marriages.
• 259. Polygamy and Australian Family Law.
• 260. Recognition of Polygyny.
• 261.The Question of Marriageable Age.
• 262. Consent to Marriage.
• 263. Sexual discrimination
• 264. Mixed Marriage.
• Traditional Marriage: Definition and Proof
• 265. Problems of Definition.
• 266. The Commission's View.
• 267. The Continuance of Traditional Marriage.
• 268. An Optional Registration Facility?
• 269. Other Questions of Application.
• 14. Aboriginal Traditional Marriage: Areas for
• Functional Recognition of Traditional Marriage
• 270. Guiding Principles.
• Legitimacy of Children, Adoption and Related Issues
• 271. Status of Children.
• 272. Adoption and Fostering of Children.
• 273. Parental Consent to Adoption:
• 274. Implications for Traditionally Married Persons.
• 275. Recognition of Traditional Marriage for this Purpose.
• 276. Qualification to Adopt.
• 277. Recent Developments.
• 278. The Commission's Recommendation.
• 279. Fostering and other Child Custody Arrangements.
• Questions of Maintenance and Property Distribution
• 280. Maintenance and Property Rights during the Relationship.
• 281. Maintenance Obligations of Marriage.
• 282. Maintenance Obligations of De Facto Relationships.
• 283. Property Rights During a Relationship.
• 284. Maintenance and Property Rights and Aboriginal Traditional Marriage.
• 285. Maintenance.
• 286. Property.
• 287. Maintenance and Property Distribution on Divorce.
• 288. Maintenance and Property Distribution on the Termination of De Facto Relationships.
• 289. Maintenance and Property Distribution on the Termination of Aboriginal Traditional Marriage.
• 290. The Commission's View.
• 291. Property Distribution on Death.
• 292. Distribution on Intestacy: The Present Law.
• 293. Family Provision (Testator's Family Maintenance).
• 294. Recognition of Traditional Marriage for this Purpose.
• Compensation for in jun. or Death
• 295. Relevant Areas.
• 296. Workers' Compensation.
• 297. Recognition of Traditional Marriage in Workers Compensation Legislation.
• 298. Accident Compensation.
• 299. Recognition of Traditional Marriage for the Purpose of Accident Compensation.
• 300. Criminal Injuries Compensation.
• 301. Superannuation.
• Entitlement to Social Security
• 302. Social Security Benefits.
• 303. Aboriginal Traditional Marriage under the Social Security Act 1947 (Cth).
• 304. Entitlement or Discretion?
• 305. Plural Wives.
• 306. Application of the Act to Plural Relationships.
• 307. Critique of the Present Position.
• 308. The Aggregation of Payments.
• 309. Application of Section 6(3) of the Act.
• 310. Conclusion.
• 311. Some Problems of Administration.
• 312. Relationship between Maintenance and Social Security.
• Spousal Compellability in the Law of Evidence
• 313. The Present Law.
• 314. Reform of the General Law.
• 315. Recognition of Traditional Marriage for this Purpose.
• 316. Marital Communications.
• The Criminal Law
• 317. Bigamy.
• 318. Rape.
• 319. Unlawful Carnal Knowlege.
• 320. The Commission's View.
• 321.Domestic Violence.
• Other Related Issues
• 322. Taxation.
• 323. Jurisdiction of Courts.
• 324. Other Implications of Marriage.
• 325. The Form of Legislation recognising Traditional Marriage.
• 15. The Protection and Distribution of
• 326. Scope of this Chapter.
• Distribution of Property between Living Persons 2
• 327. Differing Attitudes to Property.
• 328. Transfers of Personal Property.
• 329. Real Property and Aboriginal Customary Laws.
• 330. Aboriginal Land and Real Property Law.
• Distribution of Property on Death
• 331. The Significance of Death and its Consequences.
• 332. Succession:
• 333. Wills: General Principles.
• 334. Informal Wills.
• 335. Informal Wills and Aborigines.
• 336. Interpretation of Wills.
• 337. Intestacy: General Principles.
• 338. Intestacy and Traditional Marriage.
• 339. Traditional Distribution.
• 340. Traditional Distribution: the Preferred Approach.
• 341. Family Provision (Testator's Family Maintenance).
• 342. Wills. Intestacy and Family Provision: Priority of Claims.
• 343. Machinery for Traditional Distribution.
• 16. Aboriginal Customary Laws: Aboriginal Child
• Introduction
• 344. The Need to Recognise Aboriginal Family Arrangements.
• 345. The Impact of Intervention.
• 346. The Present Situation.
• 347. The Need .for Reform.
• 348. Issues for Consideration.
• An Aboriginal Child Placement Principle?
• 349. The Child's Welfare as 'Paramount Consideration'.
• 350. An Undifferentiated Criterion.
• 351. Some Judicial Applications.
• 352. The Application of the 'Paramount Consideration' to Aboriginal Children: Policy Guidelines.
• Overseas Developments
• 353. An Overseas Analogue:
• 354. Standards to be Applied in State Courts.
• 355. Tribal Court Jurisdiction over Indian Children.
• 356. The Indian Child Welfare Act in Practice.
• 357. Canadian Experience.
• 358. The Relevance of the North American Experience.
• The Prospects for Reform in Australia
• 359. State and Territory Initiatives.
• 360. Community Welfare Act 1983 ;NT).
• 361. Adoption Act 1984 (Vic).
• 362. Family and Community Development Bill 1984 (Qld).
• 363. Community Welfare Act 1982 (NSW).
• 364. Other States and Territories.
• Questions of Principle and Implementation
• 365. The Need for Specific Protection.
• 366. The Commission's Conclusion.
• 367. The Scope of Protection.
• 368. Questions of Implementation.
• Ensuring Aboriginal Involvement
• 369. Aboriginal Participation in Aboriginal Child Custody Decisions.
• 370. Aboriginal Child Care Agencies.
• 371. Support at the Policy Level.
• 372. Some Non-Statutory Forms of Aboriginal Participation at Present.
• 373. Statutory Endorsement of a Consultative Role.
• 374. A General Rule?
• 375. Devolution of Decision-Making Powers.
• 376. Separate Aboriginal Forums.
• Federal, State and Territory Forums for Issues of Aboriginal Child Custody
• 377. The Present Institutional Framework.
• 378. The Family Court of Australia and State Courts.
• 379. Other Forms of Child Care Arrangement.
• 380. Jurisdictional Reform.
• 381. The Family Court of Australia.
• 382. The Commission's View.
• 383. Aboriginal Customary Practices.
• 384. Recognition of Customary Adoption?
• 385. Existing Legislative Provisions.
• 386. Categorical Difficulties in Recognition.
• Social Security and the Care and Custody of Aboriginal Children
• 387. The Issues.
• 388. The Legislative Framework.
• 389. Conflicting Decisions.
• 390. Need for Clarification.
• 391. Some Problems of Administration.
• Summary
• 392. Recommendations in this Part.

• PART IV - ABORIGINAL CUSTOMARY LAWS: THE CRIMINAL LAW AND SENTENCING
• 17. Aboriginal Customary laws and the Criminal
• 393. The Commission's Terms of Reference.
• The Statistical Background
• 394. The Disproportionate Impact of the Criminal Justice System.
• 395. The Position with Minor Offences.
• 396. Aboriginal Juvenile Offenders.
• 397. What do the Statistics Mean?
• 398. Large Heterogeneous Communities.
• 399. No Simple Relationship between Adherence to Aboriginal Customary Laws and Low Offending Rates.
• 400. Some Implications.
• The Interaction of Aboriginal Customary Laws and the Criminal Law
• 401. The General Principle.
• 402. Different Kinds of Conflict.
• 403. A Range of Issues.
• Legal Pluralism in the Criminal Law: Overseas Experience
• 404. The United States.
• 405. Papua New Guinea:
• 406. The Customs Recognition Act (PNG).
• 407. Recognition under the Constitution.
• 408. The Papua New Guinea Law Reform Commission's Report No 7.
• 409. Canada.
• 410. Other Countries.
• 411. Conclusions.
• 412. Issues to be Considered in this Part.
• 18. Aboriginal Customary Laws and Substantive
• 413. Scope of this Chapter.
• 414. Disparate Ideas of Responsibility.
• 415. The Relevance of Recognition.
• Intent and Related Matters
• 416. At Common Law.
• 417.The Queensland and Western Australian Codes.
• 418. The Northern Territory Criminal Code 1983.
• 419. Fitness to Plead.
• Criminal Law Defences and Aboriginal Customary Laws
• 420. A Long-Standing Issue.
• Provocation
• 421. The Older Law.
• 422. Application of the Older Law of Provocation to Defendants from Differing Cultural Backgrounds.
• 423. A More Flexible Approach Applied to Aborigines.
• 424. The New Law of Provocation. In Director of Public Prosecutions v Carnplin 43,
• 425. The New Law of Provocation and Traditional Aboriginal Defendants.
• 426. The Case for a Subjective Test.
• 427. Evidentiary Questions.
• Duress
• 428. Scope and Basis of the Defence of Duress in Australia.
• 429. Subjective or Objective Test?
• 430. Duress Compared with Compulsion under Aboriginal Customary Laws.
• Other Defences
• 431. Self-Defence and Excessive Self-Defence.
• 432. Mistaken Belief.
• 433. Mistake and Aboriginal Customary Laws.
• 434. Honest Claim of Right.
• 435. Claims of Right under Aboriginal Customary Laws.
• Intoxication and Diminished Responsibility
• 436. The Impact of Alcohol on Aboriginal Communities.
• 437. Alcohol and Aboriginal Customary Laws.
• 438. Intoxication and Criminal Responsibility.
• 439. Intoxication under the Northern Territory Code.
• 440. Diminished Responsibility. 128
• Conclusion: Intent and Criminal Law Defences
• 441. The Need for Legislation?
• A Special Customary Law Defence?
• 442. Forms of Direct Recognition.
• 443. Terminological Issues.
• 444. The Impact of a Customary' Law Defence.
• 445. Proposals for a Customary Law Defence.
• 446. A Customary Law Defence to Specified Offences.
• 447. Exoneration under a Customary Law Defence in Cases of Homicide.
• 448. Arguments for a Customary Law Defence in Other Cases.
• 449. Arguments Against a Customary Law Defence.
• 450. The Commission's Conclusion.
• A Partial Customary Law Defence
• 451. Diminished Responsibility under Aboriginal Customary Laws: A Partial Defence?
• 452. Contrary Arguments.
• 453. Conclusion: A Partial Defence.
• 19.Aboriginal Customary Law Offences
• Aboriginal Customary Law as a Ground of Criminal Liability
• 454. Special Customary Offences.
• 455. The Lajamanu Submission.
• 456. The Mornington Island Submission.
• 457. The Roper River Submission.
• 458. Yirrkala Proposals.
• 459. The Groote Eylandt Aboriginal Task Force Report.
• 460. Alternative Courses of Action.
• The Commission's Approach
• 461. Customary Laws as a Basis for Criminal Liability.
• 462. The Preferred Approach.
• 463. Use of Local By-law Making Powers.
• 464. Use of Existing Laws.
• 465. Need .for Additional Specific Measures.
• Specific Measures of Protection
• 466. Customary Burials.
• 467. Sacred Sites and Relics.
• 468. Private or Secret Matters.
• 469. The Sale of Aboriginal Artefacts.
• 470. Further Measures of Protection.
• 20. Some Procedural Alternatives
• 471. A Range of Alternatives.
• Existing Procedures
• 472. Discretions not to Prosecute.
• 473. Relevance of Prosecution Guidelines.
• 474. Legality, of Guidelines.
• 475. Enforceability of Guidelines.
• 476. Consent to Prosecute.
• 477. No Bill (Nolle Prosequi)
• 478. Conclusion on Prosecutorial Powers.
• 479. Refusal to Proceed to Conviction;
• Procedural Options
• 480. Other Procedures.
• Pre-Trial Diversion
• 481. Scope of Diversion.
• 482. Canadian Experience.
• 483. A Native Diversion Scheme.
• 484. Native Diversion in New Zealand.
• 485. Submissions Supporting Diversion.
• 486. Exclusion by a Pre-Trial Administrative Hearing.
• 487. Exclusion by the Trial Judge on a Form of Voir Dire Hearing.
• 488. A Diversion Scheme for Aboriginal Customary Law Cases?
• 489. .4 Pilot Diversion Scheme for a Wider Range of Cases?
• 21. Aboriginal Customary Laws and
• Sentencing Issues
• 490. Introduction.
• Aboriginal Customary Laws and Sentencing: Existing Law and Practice
• 491. Some Case Studies.
• 492. R v Sydney Williams. 7
• 493. R v Larry Colley. 16
• 494. R v William Davey. 19
• 495. R v Joseph Murphy Jungarai. 25
• 496. R v Moses Mamarika. 30
• 497. An Overview.
• The Recognition of Aboriginal Customary Laws in Sentencing
• 498. Issues for Consideration
• Aboriginal Customary Laws and the Notion of 'Punishment'
• 499. Aboriginal Customary Laws: Offences and Responses.
• 500. Traditional Punishments or Responses.
• 501. Modifications to Aboriginal Punishments.
• 502. The Legality of Traditional Punishment Under the General Law.
• 503. Consent to Traditional Punishments.
• Sentencing and Aboriginal Customary Laws: General Principles
• 504. Building on Existing Judicial Practice.
• Taking Aboriginal Customary Laws into Account
• 505. Imprisonment as a Protection Against Customary Law Punishments.
• 506. Refusing Bail to Prevent Customary Punishments.
• 507. Taking Account of Customary Punishments.
• 508. The Issue of Double. Jeopardy.
• 509. Aboriginal Customary Laws as a Factor of Aggravation.
• 510. Relevance of Aboriginal Community Opinions in Sentencing.
• 511. Sentencing and the Wider Australian Community.
• Incorporating Aboriginal Customary Laws in Sentencing
• 512. The Distinction between 'Recognition' and 'Incorporation'.
• 513. Incorporating Traditional Punishments in Sentencing.
• 514. Relevance of Aboriginal Ceremonies.
• 515. Incorporating Aboriginal Ceremonies in Sentencing.
• The Commission's View
• 516. Endorsement of Basic Principles Elaborated by Courts.
• 517. Legislative Support for the Exercise of Existing Sentencing Discretions.
• A Special Sentencing Discretion?
• 518. The Issue. In Chapter 18
• 519. The Northern Territory Experience before 1983.
• 520. The Criminal Code 1983 (NT).
• 521. The Movement towards Sentencing Discretion in all Cases.
• 522. The Commission's Conclusion.
• Related Questions of Evidence and Procedure
• 523. Evidentiary Issues.
• 524. Determining Local Community Opinions.
• 525. Adducing Evidence of Local Community Opinions.
• 526. The Prosecution's Role.
• 527. A Role for the Defence.
• 528. Separate Community Representation.
• 529. The Use of Pre-Sentence Reports. 173
• 530. Aboriginal Evidence or Submissions.
• 531. Conclusion.
• A Wider Range of Sentencing Issues
• 532. Prevalence of Non-traditional Elements in Sentencing.
• 533. Discriminatory Sentencing Practices?
• 534. Courts of Summary Jurisdiction.
• 535. Ineffectiveness of Gaol as a Deterrent.
• 536. The Groote Eylandt Studies.
• 537. The South Australian Aboriginal Customary Law Committee.
• 538. Relevance for this Report.
• Alternative Forms of Sentencing
• 539. Encouraging Alternative Forms of Sentencing.
• 540. Probation and Conditional Release.
• 541. Other Alternatives.
• Summary
• 542. Recommendations in this Part.

• PART V - PROBLEMS OF EVIDENCE AND PROCEDURE
• 22. Criminal Investigation and Police
• Introduction
• 543. Relationship between Substantive Law, Evidence and Procedure.
• The Law relating to Interrogation and Confessions
• 544. The General Law.
• 545. The Judges Rules.
• The Need for Special Protection of Aboriginal.. Suspects
• 546. Special Problems for Aborigines.
• 547. Previous Proposals for Change.
• 548. Criminal Investigation Bill 1981 (Cth).
• Judicial Regulation of Aboriginal Confessional Evidence
• 549. Northern Territory Supreme Court.
• 550. South Australian Supreme Court.
• 551. Western Australian Supreme Court.
• 552. New South Wales Supreme Court.
• Safeguards for Aboriginal Suspects in Legislation and Police Standing Orders
• 553. Extent of Safeguards.
• 554. Northern Territory.
• 555. South Australia
• 556. Queensland.
• 557. Australian Capital Territory.
• 558. Western Australia.
• 559. Victoria.
• 560. New South Wales and Tasmania.
• Special Protection for Aboriginal Suspects?
• 561. Support for Interrogation Guidelines.
• 562. Need for Special Protection for Traditionally Oriented Aborigines.
• 563. Need for Special Protection for Other Aborigines.
• 564. Submissions on the Application of Interrogation Rules.
• 565. Conclusion.
• Difficulties of Application: The Status and Scope of the Interrogation Rules
• 566. Difficulties Experienced by the Police in Applying the Anunga Rules.
• 567. The Requirement of a Prisoner's Friend.
• 568. A Free Choice of Prisoner's Friend?
• 569. Notification of the Aboriginal Legal Service.
• 570. Excusing Non-Compliance with the Guidelines.
• 571. Application to Other Investigatory Steps.
• 572. Right to Waive Protection.
• 573. The Vehicle for Protection: Legislation or Guidelines.
• 23. General Issues of Evidence and
• 574. Scope of this Chapter.
• Committal Proceedings
• 575. The Purpose of Committal Proceedings.
• 576. Committal Proceedings and Traditionally Oriented Aborigines.
• 577. Arguments for Abolition of Committal Proceedings.
• 578. Other Administrative Problems.
• Fitness to Plead
• 579. Fitness to Plead and Problems of Comprehension.
• 580. The Present Law.
• 581. Fitness to Plead and the Trial of Traditionally Oriented Aborigines.
• 582. Ngatayi's Case.
• 583. Treatment of Persons Found Unfit to Plead.
• 584. Proposals for Change.
• 585. Conclusion.
• Aborigines and Juries
• 586. Trial by Jury for Aborigines.
• 587. Problems of Jury Trial in 'Mixed' Cases.
• 588. Submissions to the Commission.
• 589. Retention of Jury Trial.
• 590. Composition of Juries.
• 591. The Present Law.
• 592. Representativeness of Juries in Cases involving Aboriginal Defendants.
• 593. Exercise of the Court's Inherent Powers.
• 594. Broader Issues of Representation on Juries.
• 595. Selection of Juries in Cases involving Aboriginal Customary Laws.
• Interpreters
• 596. A Recurring Theme.
• 597. The Right to an Interpreter.
• 598. Interpreting Aboriginal Languages.
• 599. The Need for Aboriginal Interpreters.
• 600. Proposals for Reform.
• Unsworn Statements
• 601. The Present Law.
• 602. Unsworn Statements and Traditionally Oriented Aborigines.
• 603. Assistance with an Unsworn Statement.
• 604. Special Provision .for Unsworn Statements: The Commission's View.
• 605. Comment on Unsworn Statements.
• Aboriginal Dying Declarations
• 606. General Rule: Exception to Hearsay.
• 607. Development of the Rules Relating to Dying Declarations.
• 608. Dying Declarations of Traditional Aborigines.
• 609. Application in Subsequent Cases.
• 610. The Present Law.
• 611. Proposals for Change.
• Other Evidentiary Issues
• 612. Compellability of an Aboriginal Spouse.
• 613. Identification Evidence.
• 24. The Proof of Aboriginal Customary
• 614. The Importance of Proof.
• 615. Problems with the Common Law.
• 616. Other Issues Distinguished.
• Proof of Customary Laws: The Overseas Experience
• 617. Relevance of Overseas Experience.
• 618. India.
• 619. African Commonwealth Countries.
• 620. Papua New Guinea: The Present Law.
• 621. The PNG Law Reform Commission's Proposals.
• Proof of Aboriginal Customary Laws: The Australian Experience
• 622. The Need for Proof of Aboriginal Customary Laws.
• 623. Codification of Aboriginal Customary Laws Rejected.
• 624. Judicial Insistence on Proof
• 625. Some Australian Cases.
• 626. The Work of the Aboriginal Land Commissioner. 74
• Methods of Proving Aboriginal Customary Laws
• 627. Approaches to Reform.
• Expert Evidence
• 628. The Range of Experts.
• Who is an Expert?
• 629. The Present Law. 96
• 630. Qualification as an Expert.
• 631. Qualification as an Expert in Foreign Law.
• 632. Qualification as an Expert on Aboriginal Customary Laws.
• The Scope of Expert Evidence
• 633. The 'Ultimate Issue' Rule.
• 634. Opinions Based in Part on Hearsay: The 'Basis' Rule.
• 635. Opinions of Aboriginal Customary Laws Based in Part on Hearsay.
• 636. The Common Knowledge Rule.
• 637. Conclusion: Expert Evidence.
• Aboriginal Evidence
• 638. The Law of Evidence and Aboriginal Testimony about Customary Laws.
• 639. Rejection of Special Rules for Proof of Aboriginal Customary Laws.
• 640. Aboriginal Experiential Evidence.
• 641. Aboriginal Opinion Evidence.
• Conclusion
• 642. The Need for Clarification.
• 25. The Taking of Aboriginal Evidence
• 643. Problems in Taking Aboriginal Evidence
• Authority to Speak
• 644. Authority to Speak on a Particular Matter.
• 645. Identifying Witnesses With Authority, to Speak.
• Group Evidence
• 646. Land Claim Initiatives.
• 647. Other Administrative Hearings.
• 648. Application to Court Hearings.
• Problems of Secrecy
• 649. Arguments from Secrecy.
• 650. Secrecy and the Land Claim Experience.
• 651. The Warumungu Decision.
• 652. Secrecy in Court Hearings.
• 653. The Scope of Existing Powers.
• 654. The Use of Existing Powers in Customary Law Cases.
• 655. Secrecy and Natural Justice.
• 656. Conclusion: Powers to Ensure Secrecy.
• Privileged Communications
• 657. Confidential Communications.
• 658. Public Interest Immunity.
• 659. Legal Professional Privilege.
• 660. Extension of Legal Professional Privilege to Other Relationships.
• 661.Conclusions.
• Privilege against Self-Incrimination
• 662. Self-Incrimination under Aboriginal Customary Laws: The Issue.
• 663. Justifications for the Privilege.
• 664. Application to Incrimination under Aboriginal Customary Laws.
• 665. A Specific Privilege.
• 26. Other Methods of Proof: Assessors, Court
• 666. Non- Adversarial Methods of Proving Customary Laws.
• Assessors
• 667. Experiments in Australian Courts.
• 668. Assessors in the NSW Land and Environment Court.
• 669. The Land Claim Experience.
• 670. The Role of Assessors in Customary Law Cases Abroad.
• 671. Difficulties with Assessors.
• 672. Assessors and the Proof of Aboriginal Customary Laws.
• 673. Outside Assessors as Customary Law Experts.
• 674. Conclusion.
• Court Experts
• 675. The Use of Court Experts in Australia. 26
• Pre-sentence and Similar Reports
• 676. A Valuable Aid.

• Summary
• 677. Recommendations in this Part.